Electronics
A phone or laptop is assembled in factories in China, Vietnam and elsewhere in Asia, from metals that are often dug by hand, including cobalt from DR Congo.
40,000
children worked in mines in southern DR Congo in 2014, UNICEF estimated
14/100
median score of 60 big technology companies on tackling forced labour, 2022
SourceBusiness & Human Rights Resource Centre (2022): 2022 KnowTheChain ICT benchmark (opens in a new tab)
22%
of the world's e-waste was documented as collected and recycled in 2022
How the 239 brands we've graded split
The industry at a glance
DR Congo mined about three-quarters of the world's cobalt in 2025, and Indonesia about a seventh. (US Geological Survey, 2026: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt (opens in a new tab))
Between the mine and the shop, metals pass through smelters and refiners, then component factories, then final assembly. Each step is usually a different company, so a brand has to ask its suppliers who smelted the metals and where they were mined.
Labour Lens grades electronics on the factories that make them, and checks whether the company traces its cobalt, gold and other conflict minerals to the mine. A company that relies on these metals and takes no steps to trace them is Lacks transparency.
On the record
- Amnesty International found children as young as seven working in DR Congo's cobalt mines, for up to 12 hours a day, earning US$1 to US$2. (Amnesty International, 2016: "This is what we die for": human rights abuses in the Democratic Republic of the Congo power the global trade in cobalt (opens in a new tab))
- Amnesty traced cobalt from these mines to the supply chains of 16 companies, including Apple, Samsung, Sony, Microsoft and Huawei. None gave enough detail to verify where its cobalt came from. (Amnesty International, 2016: "This is what we die for": human rights abuses in the Democratic Republic of the Congo power the global trade in cobalt (opens in a new tab))
- At least 80 miners died underground in southern DR Congo between September 2014 and December 2015. (Amnesty International, 2016: "This is what we die for": human rights abuses in the Democratic Republic of the Congo power the global trade in cobalt (opens in a new tab))
- In the 2022 KnowTheChain benchmark, Hewlett Packard Enterprise scored highest, at 63 out of 100. Companies averaged 2 out of 100 on how their buying practices affect workers. (Business & Human Rights Resource Centre, 2022: 2022 KnowTheChain ICT benchmark (opens in a new tab))
- At least 80,000 Uyghurs were transferred to factories across China between 2017 and 2019, some of them making electronics for global brands, according to the Australian Strategic Policy Institute. (Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 2020: Uyghurs for sale: 'Re-education', forced labour and surveillance beyond Xinjiang (opens in a new tab))
- The world threw away 62 million tonnes of electronics in 2022, and the UN expects 82 million tonnes by 2030. (UNITAR, 2024: Global E-waste Monitor 2024: electronic waste rising five times faster than documented e-waste recycling (opens in a new tab))
- The US Department of Labor lists 19 resources in this industry from 35 countries as made with child or forced labour. See the list
Along the supply chain
Industrial and hand-dug mines, including cobalt mines in DR Congo
What happens here
Artisanal miners, children among them, dig with hand tools in tunnels that collapse, breathing toxic dust.
What we check
Whether the company traces its cobalt, gold and other conflict minerals to the mine.
Plants that turn ore into metal
What happens here
Metal from many mines is mixed here, so it's the point where independent checks such as the RMAP smelter audit focus.
What we check
Whether it publishes its smelter list and uses independently audited (RMAP) smelters for tin, tantalum, tungsten and gold.
Chip, battery, display and circuit-board factories
What happens here
Electronics from Malaysia are on the US Department of Labor's forced labour list, and from China for both forced and child labour.
What we check
Whether it shows where its components are made, not only its final assembly.
Large assembly plants in China, Vietnam and India
What happens here
Contract manufacturers run huge plants that assemble products for many brands at once.
What we check
Whether it publishes its supplier list, has its factories independently audited, and shows a living wage or a credible plan to pay one.
Technology companies in the United States, Asia and Europe
What happens here
The brand designs the product, chooses its suppliers and decides whether to publish them.
What we check
Responsible Business Alliance membership counts for a little. Publishing suppliers and smelters counts for more.
Refurbishers, repairers and recyclers
What happens here
Buying refurbished avoids most new mining and factory work, though repairs still need new batteries, screens and parts.
What we check
Refurbished and second-hand sellers can be Good when they have no red flags. They don't earn stars.
The extra check for Good
Traces its cobalt, gold and other conflict minerals to the mine.
Missing it holds a brand at On Track at best, and taking no steps at all means Lacks transparency.
Resources on the US Department of Labor's list
The list names resources and the countries where the Department found child labour or forced labour in producing them. It covers whole countries, not companies.
19 resources shown
| Resource | Child labour | Forced labour |
|---|---|---|
| Gold | Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Colombia, DR Congo, Ecuador, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Indonesia, Kenya, Mali, Mongolia, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, Peru, Philippines, Senegal, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Uganda, Venezuela, Zimbabwe | Burkina Faso, Chad, DR Congo, North Korea, Peru, Venezuela |
| Electronics | China, Pakistan | China, Malaysia |
| Cobalt Ore (heterogenite) | DR Congo | DR Congo |
| Mica | India, Madagascar | Not listed |
| Tantalum Ore (coltan) | DR Congo | DR Congo |
| Tin | Bolivia, Indonesia | Not listed |
| Tin Ore (cassiterite) | DR Congo | DR Congo |
| Tungsten Ore (wolframite) | DR Congo | DR Congo |
| Aluminum | Not listed | China |
| Copper | DR Congo | Not listed |
| Copper Ore | Zambia | Not listed |
| Copper Products | DR Congo* (made with listed inputs) | Not listed |
| Electrolytic Copper Products | China* (made with listed inputs) | Not listed |
| Indium | South Korea* (made with listed inputs) | Not listed |
| Lithium | Zimbabwe | Not listed |
| Lithium-Ion Batteries | China* (made with listed inputs) | Not listed |
| Metallurgical Grade Silicon | Not listed | China |
| Nickel | Not listed | Indonesia |
| Polysilicon | Not listed | China |
* Made with inputs listed for child or forced labour, such as cocoa or cotton grown elsewhere.
What earns each grade
Good
3 of 239 brands
- Traces its cobalt, gold and other conflict minerals to the mine
- Publishes its suppliers and has its factories independently audited
- Shows its factory workers earn a living wage
- Or sells refurbished or second-hand devices, with no red flags
For example Back Market, Frank Mobile, Reebelo
On Track
2 of 239 brands
- Publishes its suppliers and smelters and has a public living wage plan, but can't yet trace its cobalt to the mine
- Makes its products in places such as Taiwan where legal wages are close to a living wage, and publishes its smelter list
For example Raspberry Pi, Fairphone
- Relies on cobalt, gold and tin it takes no steps to trace, which alone means Lacks transparency
- Responsible Business Alliance membership with no evidence on wages
- Doesn't say where its products are made, so it's graded on conditions in China
For example RØDE, beyerdynamic, Sigma · See all 226
Signs of a fair supply chain
- A published supplier list and smelter list
- Cobalt and gold traced to the mine, with audit results
- Refurbished, repairable or second-hand devices
Warning signs
- "Conflict-free" that covers tin, tantalum, tungsten and gold but says nothing about cobalt
- Responsible Business Alliance membership as the only evidence
- No supplier list
Try the rules
Pick an example or tick what a company can show, and see the grade the rules would give it.
The grade it would get
Grade: Lacks transparency
This company makes its products in China and publishes its supplier list. Until it traces its cobalt, gold and tin to the mine, it can't show that the miners who dig them are safe or fairly paid.
Good requirements 3 of 6
- Not met: Pays a living wage, or holds a strong fair-pay certification
- Not met: Respects worker rights
- Met: Supply chain independently audited or certified, or at least 80% made in countries with strong labour standards
- Met: No child or forced labour findings or links
- Met: Names the factories or farms that make its products, or is fully certified by a scheme that holds and audits that list
- Not met: Traces its cobalt, gold and other conflict minerals to the mine
Red flags 2
- Red flag: No evidence it pays a living wage
- Red flag: Relies on high-risk mined materials it can't trace
- Red flag: Fails its category's check on minerals traced to the mine (means Lacks transparency)
A made-up company, graded by the same rules as every brand on Labour Lens. What Lacks transparency means
The full rules are on the Grading page, with the finer points on Resources.
The brands we've graded
Where they make things
186 of the 239 brands say where they make their products. The countries they name most:
| Country | Brands | Worker rights | Legal minimum wage | Forced labour risk |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| China | 154 | No guarantee of rights | Below a living wage | Moderate |
| Vietnam | 56 | Systematic violations | Well below a living wage | Moderate |
| Taiwan | 30 | Strong protections | Close to a living wage | Low |
| Thailand | 29 | No guarantee of rights | Below a living wage | Moderate |
| Malaysia | 28 | No guarantee of rights | Below a living wage | Moderate |
| India | 27 | No guarantee of rights | Well below a living wage | High |
| Japan | 25 | Strong protections | Close to a living wage | Low |
| Mexico | 22 | Regular violations | Below a living wage | Moderate |
Good electronics brands
Questions and answers
7 questions
Is there such a thing as an ethical phone?
No phone is free of risk, because every one needs mined metals and factory work. What separates brands is whether they trace their cobalt and gold to the mine, publish their suppliers and smelters, and show what assembly workers are paid.
Buying refurbished avoids most of the new mining and factory work.
What are conflict minerals?
Tin, tantalum, tungsten and gold, often called 3TG, which have funded armed groups in eastern DR Congo. Smelter audits such as RMAP check where these four come from.
Cobalt isn't one of them, so a company can call its products "conflict-free" and still not know where its cobalt was mined.
Why does cobalt matter so much?
It's in the rechargeable batteries of phones, laptops and electric cars, and about three-quarters of it comes from DR Congo, where some is dug by hand. Amnesty International (opens in a new tab) found children as young as seven working in these mines.
Tracing cobalt to the mine is part of Labour Lens's electronics check for Good.
Does recycled cobalt or gold fix the problem?
It helps, because it means less new mining, and Labour Lens counts it as working towards the minerals check. It doesn't pass the check on its own: a company still needs to trace the metals it buys new to the mine.
Is buying refurbished better?
Yes, for the people in the supply chain. A refurbished device creates no new demand for most mining and assembly work, so refurbished and second-hand sellers can be Good when they have no red flags.
Repairs still use new batteries, screens and parts, and a seller's page says when it doesn't name or audit its repair workshops.
What is the Responsible Business Alliance?
An electronics industry group with a code of conduct and third-party factory audits. Members set their own pace, so membership counts for a little on Labour Lens, not as proof of fair pay or a full audit.
Why do big tech companies score so low on forced labour?
In the 2022 KnowTheChain benchmark (opens in a new tab) of 60 technology companies, the median score was 14 out of 100. Companies averaged 2 out of 100 on how their buying practices affect workers, and 8 out of 100 on giving workers a voice.
Sources
- Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Cobalt (opens in a new tab) US Geological Survey, 2026
- "This is what we die for": human rights abuses in the Democratic Republic of the Congo power the global trade in cobalt (opens in a new tab) Amnesty International, 2016
- 2022 KnowTheChain ICT benchmark (opens in a new tab) Business & Human Rights Resource Centre, 2022
- Global E-waste Monitor 2024: electronic waste rising five times faster than documented e-waste recycling (opens in a new tab) UNITAR, 2024
- Uyghurs for sale: 'Re-education', forced labour and surveillance beyond Xinjiang (opens in a new tab) Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 2020
- List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor (opens in a new tab) US Department of Labor, Bureau of International Labor Affairs (ILAB), 2024
Figures are as each source published them. The grades and brand counts are Labour Lens's own, from the brands we've researched.
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